The Battle of Mons Graupius AD 84. (Illustration by Jennifer Campbell from Antony Kamm, Scotland in Roman Times, Scottish Children’s Press 1998)
(Illustration by John Pittaway from Picture Reference Ancient Romans, Brockhampton Press 1970)
Model of legionary headquarters. (VRoma: Chester Museum: Barbara McManus)
Bronze coin of Caligula commemorating his father Germanicus holding a staff topped with the eagle. The inscription refers to his having recovered the standard from the Germans. (VRoma: British Museum: Barbara McManus)
Surveyor on the march using a groma; having planted it in the ground and checked from the plumb lines that it was upright, he would take a sight along the arms or strings to make a straight line or right angle. (Illustration by Jennifer Campbell from Antony Kamm, Scotland in Roman Times, Scottish Children’s Press 1998)
Battle scene from Trajan’s column (cast), with (bottom right) medical orderlies tending the wounded. (VRoma: EUR (Rome), Museum of Roman Civilization: Barbara McManus)
(Left) centurion; (centre) aquilifer; (right) signifer, who carried the century’s standard and looked after its savings bank. (Left and right, illustrations by Jennifer Campbell from Antony Kamm, Scotland in Roman Times, Scottish Children’s Press 1988; centre, illustration by John Pittaway from Picture Reference Ancient Romans, Brockhampton Press 1970)
Drawing of auxiliary cavalrymen and horse. (VRoma: Landesmuseum, Mainz: Barbara McManus)
A relief in the Louvre, Paris, from the period of Trajan and Hadrian, showing members of the imperial guard, indicated by their rich uniforms and helmets, and oval shields. Behind is a legionary standard, with the eagle holding a thunderbolt in its claws. (Deutches Archaeologisches Institut, Rome)
Coin of Hadrian showing Roman naval vessel with oars and rowers. (VRoma: British Museum: Barbara McManus)
From Trajan’s column (cast), men attack a wall under their shields; the formation was known as the “tortoise”. (VRoma: EUR (Rome), Museum of Roman Civilization: Barbara McManus)
A selection of artillery and siege weapons. The largest and most effective was known as the onager (wild ass) because of its kick. Each century was allocated a mechanical arrow-shooter which was deployed in battle. (Illustrations by John Pittaway from Picture Reference Ancient Romans, Brockhampton Press 1970)
The battle of Bibracte 58 BC. (From Antony Kamm, The Romans: an introduction, Routledge 1995)
Scene from Trajan’s column: the river god Danubius watches legionaries crossing a pontoon bridge. (VRoma: AICT)
Plaster cast of distance-slab from the Antonine Wall. (VRoma: Hunterian Museum, Glasgow: Susan Bonvallet)
Reconstructed fortification marking the boundary of the Roman empire in Germany, showing palisade and ditch. (VRoma: Saalburg Museum: Barbara McManus)
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